Ir CNC stiprāks par cast?

1. Ievads

Pēdējos gados, the quest for lightweight, izturīgs, and cost-effective components has intensified.

Aerospace engineers seek turbine blades that withstand 1,400°C combustion temperatures;

automotive designers push engine blocks to handle 200MPa peak cylinder pressures; orthopedic surgeons demand titanium implants that endure 10⁷ loading cycles without failure.

Amid these challenges, the debate rages: Are CNC-machined parts inherently stronger than cast parts?

To answer this, we must first clarify what “strength” entails—tensile and yield values, noguruma dzīve,

ietekmēt izturību, and wear resistance—then compare how CNC machining and various casting methods measure up across these criteria.

Galu galā, the most robust solution often lies in a tailored combination of processes, materiāli, and post-treatments.

2. CNC Machining Metal

CNC (Datora skaitliskā vadība) apstrāde ir a subtractive manufacturing process, meaning it removes material from a solid workpiece—usually a wrought metal billet—to produce a precisely defined final geometry.

The process is controlled by computer programs that dictate tool paths, speeds, and feeds, enabling the consistent production of high-accuracy parts.

Subtractive Process: From Billet to Finished Part

The typical workflow begins with selecting a wrought billet of metal such as 7075 alumīnijs, 316 nerūsējošais tērauds, vai Ti-6Al-4V titanium.

The billet is then clamped into a CNC mill or lathe, kur rotating cutting tools vai turning inserts systematically remove material along programmed axes.

The result is a finished part with exceptionally tight dimensional tolerances, high surface quality, un mechanically robust properties.

Tipiski materiāli: Wrought Alloys

• Alumīnija sakausējumi: Piem., 6061-T6, 7075‑T6 – known for light weight, mašīnīgums, and strength-to-weight ratio.
• Steel Alloys: Piem., 1045, 4140, 316, 17-4PH – offering superior mechanical strength and wear resistance.
• Titāna sakausējumi: Piem., Ti-6Al-4V – valued for corrosion resistance, bioloģiskā savietojamība, and high strength-to-weight performance.
• Other Metals: Misiņš, vara, magnijs, Neiebilstība, and more can also be CNC-machined for specialized applications.

Galvenās funkcijas

• Izmēra precizitāte: ±0.005 mm or better with advanced multi-axis CNC machines.
• Virsmas apdare: As-machined finishes typically achieve RA 0,4-1,6 µm, with further polishing reaching Ra < 0.2 µm.
• Repeatability: Ideal for both low and medium batch production with minimal variation.
• Tool Flexibility: Supports milling, urbšana, pagrieziens, garlaicīgs, threading, and engraving in one setup on 5-axis machines.

Pros of CNC Machining

• Superior Mechanical Strength:
  Parts retain the fine-grain structure of wrought metals, typically showing 20–40% higher strength than cast counterparts.
• High Precision and Tolerance Control:
  CNC machining can meet tolerances as tight as ±0.001 mm, Būtiska aviācijas un kosmosa, medicīnisks, and optical components.
• Excellent Surface Integrity:
  Izlīdzināt, uniform surfaces with low roughness improve fatigue resistance, blīvējuma veiktspēja, un estētiku.
• Materiāla daudzpusība:
  Compatible with virtually all industrial metals, from soft aluminum to hard superalloys like Inconel and Hastelloy.
• Rapid Prototyping and Customization:
  Ideal for small to medium batches, iterative design testing, and unique part geometries without expensive tooling.
• Minimal Internal Defects:
  Machined parts are generally free from porosity, saraušanās dobumi, or inclusions—common issues in casting.

Cons of CNC Machining

• Materiālu atkritumi:
  Being subtractive, CNC machining often results in 50–80% material loss, especially for complex geometries.
• High Cost for Large Production Runs:
  Per-unit costs remain high without economies of scale, and extensive tool wear may further increase operational expenses.
• Longer Cycle Times for Complex Parts:
  Intricate geometries requiring multiple setups or tools may significantly increase machining time.
• Limited Internal Complexity:
  Internal passages and undercuts are difficult to achieve without special fixtures, and often require EDM or modular designs.
• Requires Skilled Programming and Setup:
  Precision programming and tooling strategies are essential to achieve optimal efficiency and part quality.

3. Metal Casting

Metal casting remains one of the oldest and most versatile manufacturing methods, enabling the economical production of parts that range from a few grams to multiple tons.

By pouring molten metal into molds—either single‑use or reusable—casting delivers near‑net shapes, complex internal features, and large cross‑sections that would be difficult or prohibitively expensive to machine from solid billets.

Overview of Common Casting Methods

1. Smilšu liešana

• Apstrādāt: Pack sand around a pattern, remove the pattern, and pour metal into the resulting cavity.
• Typical Volumes: 10–10,000 units per pattern.
• Pielaide: ± 0.5–1.5 mm.
• Virsmas raupjums: RA 6–12 µm.

2. Investīciju liešana (Lost‑Wax)

• Apstrādāt: Create a wax pattern, coat it in ceramic slurry, melt out the wax, then pour metal into the ceramic mold.
• Typical Volumes: 100–20,000 units per mold.
• Pielaide: ± 0.1–0.3 mm.
• Virsmas raupjums: RA 0,8-3,2 µm.

3. Mirkšana

• Apstrādāt: Inject molten non‑ferrous metal (alumīnijs, cinks) into high‑precision steel dies under high pressure.
• Typical Volumes: 10,000–1,000,000+ units per die.
• Pielaide: ± 0.05–0.2 mm.
• Virsmas raupjums: RA 0,8-3,2 µm.

4. Lost‑Foam Casting

• Apstrādāt: Replace sand patterns with expanded polystyrene foam; the foam vaporizes upon metal contact.
• Typical Volumes: 100–5,000 units per pattern.
• Pielaide: ± 0.3–0.8 mm.
• Virsmas raupjums: Ra 3.2–6.3 µm.

5. Pastāvīga pelējuma liešana

• Apstrādāt: Reusable metal molds (often steel) are filled by gravity or low pressure, then cooled and opened.
• Typical Volumes: 1,000–50,000 units per mold.
• Pielaide: ± 0.1–0.5 mm.
• Virsmas raupjums: Ra 3.2–6.3 µm.

Typical Casting Materials

1. Cast Irons (Pelēks, Hercogi, Baltums)

• Pieteikumi: motora bloki, sūkņu apvalki, mašīnu bāzes.
• Raksturlielumi: high damping, compressive strength up to 800 MPA, moderate tensile strength (200–400 MPa).

2. Atlaist Steels

• Pieteikumi: spiediena tvertnes, Smago mašīnu komponenti.
• Raksturlielumi: tensile strength 400–700 MPa, toughness up to 100 MPa·√m after heat treatment.

3. Alumīnijs Cast Alloys (A356, A319, utc)

• Pieteikumi: automotive wheels, aerospace structural parts.
• Raksturlielumi: tensile strength 250–350 MPa, density ~2.7 g/cm³, laba izturība pret koroziju.

4. Vara, Magnijs, Cinka sakausējumi

• Pieteikumi: elektriskie savienotāji, aerospace fittings, dekoratīvā aparatūra.
• Raksturlielumi: excellent conductivity (vara), zems blīvums (magnijs), tight tolerance capability (cinks).

Key Features of Casting

• Near‑Net Shape Capability: Minimizes machining and material waste.
• Sarežģītā ģeometrija: Easily produces internal cavities, ribas, zemūdens, and bosses.
• Mērogojamība: No a few hundred līdz millions of parts, depending on method.
• Large Part Production: Capable of casting components weighing several tons.
• Alloy Flexibility: Allows specialized compositions not readily available in wrought form.

Pros of Metal Casting

• Cost‑Effective Tooling for High Volumes: Die casting amortizes tooling over hundreds of thousands of parts, reducing per‑piece cost by up to 70% compared to CNC.
• Dizaina brīvība: Intricate internal passages and thin walls (tik zema kā 2 mm in investment casting) are possible.
• Material Savings: Near‑net shapes reduce scrap, especially in large or complex parts.
• Size Versatility: Produces very large parts (Piem., marine engine blocks) that are impractical to machine.
• Rapid Batch Production: Die-cast parts can cycle every 15–45 seconds, meeting high-volume demands.

Cons of Metal Casting

• Inferior Mechanical Properties: As‑cast microstructures—dendritic grains and porosity—yield tensile strengths 20–40% lower and fatigue lives 50–80% shorter than wrought/CNC counterparts.
• Surface and Dimensional Limitations: Coarser finishes (Ra 3–12 µm) and looser tolerances (± 0.1–1.5 mm) often necessitate secondary machining.
• Potential for Casting Defects: Shrinkage voids, gas porosity, and inclusions can act as crack initiation sites.
• High Initial Tooling Cost for Precision Molds: Investment casting and die casting molds can exceed US $50,000–$200,000, requiring high volumes to justify expense.
• Longer Lead Times for Tooling Fabrication: Designing, ražošana, and validating complex molds can take 6–16 weeks before first parts are produced.

4. Material Microstructure and Its Influence on Strength

The microstructure of a metal—its grain size, forma, and defect population—fundamentally governs its mechanical performance.

Wrought vs. As‑Cast Grain Structures

Wrought alloys undergo hot or cold deformation followed by controlled cooling, producing fine, equiaxed grains often on the order of 5-20 µm in diameter.

Turpretī, as‑cast alloys solidify in a thermal gradient, veidošanās dendritic arms un segregation channels with average grain sizes of 50–200 µm.

• Impact on Strength: According to the Hall–Petch relationship, halving grain size can boost yield strength by 10-15%.
  Piemēram, wrought 7075‑T6 aluminum (grain size ~10 µm) typically achieves a yield strength of 503 MPA, whereas cast A356‑T6 aluminum (grain size ~100 µm) peaks around 240 MPA.

Porainība, Ieslēgumi, and Defects

Casting processes can introduce 0.5–2% volumetric porosity, along with oxide or slag inclusions.

These microscale voids act as stress concentrators, drastically reducing fatigue life and fracture toughness.

• Fatigue Example: A cast aluminum alloy with 1% porosity may see a 70-80% shorter fatigue life under cyclic loading compared to its wrought counterpart.
• Stingrība lūzumam: Wrought 316 stainless steel often exhibits K_IC values above 100 MPa·√m, while sand‑cast 316 SS may only reach 40–60 MPa·√m.

Heat Treatment and Work‑Hardening

CNC‑machined components can leverage advanced heat treatments—rūdīšana, rūdīšana, vai nokrišņu sacietēšana—to tailor microstructures and maximize strength and toughness.

Piemēram, solution‑treated and aged Ti‑6Al‑4V can reach tensile strengths above 900 MPA.

By comparison, cast parts typically receive homogenization to reduce chemical segregation, and sometimes solution treatment,

but they cannot attain the same uniform precipitation microstructure as wrought alloys.

Rezultātā, cast superalloys may achieve tensile strengths of 600–700 MPa post‑treatment, solid but still below wrought equivalents.

Work‑Hardening and Surface Treatments

Turklāt, CNC machining itself can introduce beneficial compressive residual stresses on critical surfaces,

particularly when combined with shot‑peening, which improves fatigue resistance by up to 30%.

Casting lacks this mechanical work‑hardening effect unless subsequent treatments (Piem., cold rolling or peening) are applied.

5. Mehānisko īpašību salīdzinājums

To determine whether CNC-machined components are stronger than cast ones, a direct comparison of their Mehāniskās īpašības—including tensile strength, Noguruma pretestība, and impact toughness—is essential.

While material choice and design both play a role, the manufacturing process itself significantly affects the final performance of the part.

Stiepes un ražas stiprums

Stiepes izturība measures the maximum stress a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking, kamēr peļņas izturība indicates the point at which permanent deformation begins.

CNC-machined parts are typically made from wrought alloys, which exhibit refined microstructures due to mechanical working and thermomechanical processing.

• Wrought Aluminum 7075-T6 (CNC Machined):

• • Peļņas izturība: 503 MPA
  • Galīgā stiepes izturība (UTS): 572 MPA

• Cast Aluminum A356-T6 (Heat Treated):

• • Peļņas izturība: 240 MPA
  • UTS: 275 MPA

Līdzīgi, wrought titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) processed via CNC machining may reach a UTS of 900–950 MPa,

whereas its cast version typically tops out around 700–750 MPa due to the presence of porosity and a less refined microstructure.

Secinājums: CNC-machined components from wrought materials typically offer 30–50% higher yield and tensile strength than their cast counterparts.

Fatigue Life and Endurance Limit

Fatigue performance is critical in aerospace, medicīnisks, and automotive parts subjected to cyclic loading.

Porainība, ieslēgumi, and surface roughness in cast parts severely reduce fatigue resistance.

• Wrought Steel (CNC): Endurance limit ~ 50% no UTS
• Cast Steel: Endurance limit ~ 30–35% of UTS

Piemēram, in AISI 1045:

• CNC-machined (wrought): Endurance limit ~ 310 MPA
• Cast equivalent: Endurance limit ~ 190 MPA

CNC machining also provides smoother surfaces (Ra 0.2–0.8 μm), which delays crack initiation. Turpretī, as-cast surfaces (Ra 3-6 μm) can act as initiation sites, accelerating failure.

Impact Toughness and Fracture Resistance

Impact toughness quantifies a material’s ability to absorb energy during sudden impacts, and is especially important for parts in crash-prone or high-strain environments.

Cast metals often contain microvoids or shrinkage cavities, reducing their energy absorption capacity.

• Wrought Steel (Charpy V-notch at room temp):>80 Jūti
• Cast Steel (same conditions):<45 Jūti

Even after heat treatment, castings rarely reach the fracture toughness values of wrought products due to persistent internal flaws and anisotropic structures.

Cietība un nodilumizturība

While casting allows for surface hardening treatments like case hardening vai induction hardening,

CNC-machined parts often benefit from work hardening, precipitation treatments, vai nitrings, yielding consistent surface hardness across the part.

• CNC-machined 17-4PH stainless steel: līdz HRC 44
• Cast 17-4PH (aged): parasti HRC 30–36

When surface integrity is critical—for example, in bearing housings, veidnes, or rotating shafts—CNC machining provides a superior, more predictable wear profile.

6. Residual Stress and Anisotropy

When comparing CNC-machined and cast components, evaluating residual stress un anisotropy is vital to understanding how each manufacturing process influences structural integrity, Izmēra stabilitāte, un ilgtermiņa veiktspēju.

These two factors, though often less discussed than tensile strength or fatigue life,

can significantly affect a component’s behavior under real-world operating conditions, particularly in high-precision applications like aerospace, medicīniskās ierīces, and automotive powertrains.

Residual Stress: Origins and Effects

Residual stress refers to the internal stresses retained in a component after manufacturing, even when no external forces are applied.

These stresses may lead to warping, plaisāšana, or premature failure if not properly managed.

▸ CNC-Machined Components

CNC apstrāde, being a subtractive process, can induce mechanical and thermal stresses primarily near the surface. These residual stresses arise from:

• Cutting forces and tool pressure, especially during high-speed or deep-pass operations
• Localized thermal gradients, caused by frictional heat between the cutting tool and material
• Interrupted cuts, which can create uneven stress zones around holes or sharp transitions

While machining-induced residual stresses are generally shallow and localized, they can influence Izmēra precizitāte, especially in thin-walled or high-precision parts.

Lai arī, CNC machining from wrought materials, which already undergo extensive processing to refine grain structures and relieve internal stresses,

tends to result in more stable and predictable residual stress profiles.

Data Point: In aerospace-grade aluminum (7075-T6), residual stresses introduced during CNC machining are typically within ±100 MPa near the surface.

▸ Cast Components

In casting, residual stresses originate from non-uniform solidification un cooling contraction, especially in complex geometries or thick-walled sections.

These thermally induced stresses often extend deeper into the part and are harder to control without additional post-processing.

• Differential cooling rates create tensile stresses in the core un compressive stresses at the surface
• Shrinkage cavities and porosity can act as stress risers
• Residual stress levels depend on mold design, alloy type, and cooling conditions

Data Point: In cast steels, residual stresses can exceed ±200 MPa, especially in large castings that have not undergone stress-relief heat treatment.

Summary Comparison:

Aspekts	CNC-Machined	Atlaist
Origin of Stress	Cutting forces, localized heating	Thermal contraction during cooling
Depth	Shallow (surface-level)	Deep (volumetric)
Predictability	Augsts (especially in wrought alloys)	Zems (requires stress-relief processes)
Typical Stress Range	±50–100 MPa	±150–200 MPa or more

Anisotropy: Directional Properties of Materials

Anisotropy refers to the variation of material properties in different directions, which can significantly affect mechanical performance in load-bearing applications.

▸ CNC-Machined (Wrought) Materiāli

Wrought alloys—used as the base stock for CNC machining—undergo ritošs, ekstrūzija, vai kalšana, resulting in a refined and directionally consistent grain structure.

While some mild anisotropies may exist, the material properties are generally more uniform and predictable across different directions.

• High degree of isotropy in machined parts, especially after multi-axis milling
• More consistent mechanical behavior under complex loading conditions
• Controlled grain flow can enhance properties in the desired direction

Piemērs: In forged titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V), the tensile strength varies by less than 10% between longitudinal and transverse directions after CNC machining.

▸ Cast Materials

Turpretī, cast metals solidify from a molten state, often resulting in directional grain growth un dendritic structures aligned with heat flow.

This causes inherent anisotropy and potential weakness in off-axis loading conditions.

• Greater variability in tensile, nogurums, and impact properties across different directions
• Grain boundary segregation and inclusion alignment further reduce uniformity
• Mechanical properties are less predictable, especially in large or complex castings

Piemērs: In cast Inconel 718 turbīnu asmeņi, tensile strength can differ by 20–30% between radial and axial orientations due to directional solidification.

7. Surface Integrity and Post‑Processing

Surface integrity and post-processing are essential considerations in determining the long-term performance, Noguruma pretestība, and visual quality of manufactured components.

Whether a part is created through CNC apstrāde vai liešana, the final surface condition can influence not only aesthetics but also mechanical behavior under service conditions.

This section explores how surface integrity differs between CNC-machined and cast parts, the role of post-processing treatments, and their cumulative impact on functionality.

Surface Finish Comparison

CNC apstrāde:

• CNC machining typically produces parts with lieliska virsmas apdare, especially when fine tool paths and high spindle speeds are used.
• Common surface roughness (Ra) values for CNC:

• • Standard finish: Ra ≈ 1.6–3.2 µm
  • Precision finish: Ra ≈ 0.4–0.8 µm
  • Ultra-fine finish (Piem., lapping, pulēšana): Ra ≈ 0.1–0.2 µm

• Smooth surfaces reduce stress concentrators, enhance fatigue life, and improve sealing properties, critical in hydraulic and aerospace applications.

Liešana:

• As-cast surfaces are generally rougher and less consistent due to mold texture, metal flow, and solidification characteristics.

• • Smilšu liešana: Ra ≈ 6.3–25 µm
  • Investīciju liešana: Ra ≈ 3.2–6.3 µm
  • Mirkšana: Ra ≈ 1.6–3.2 µm

• Rough surfaces can harbor residual sand, scale, or oxides, which may degrade fatigue and corrosion resistance unless further finished.

Subsurface Integrity and Defects

CNC apstrāde:

• Machining from wrought billets often results in blīvs, homogeneous surfaces with low porosity.
• Lai arī, aggressive cutting parameters can introduce:

• • Micro-cracks or heat-affected zones (Zarns)
  • Residual tensile stresses, which may reduce fatigue life

• Controlled machining and coolant optimization help maintain metallurgical stability.

Liešana:

• Cast parts are more susceptible to subsurface defects, piemēram:

• • Porainība, gas bubbles, and shrinkage cavities
  • Ieslēgumi (oxides, slag) un segregation zones

• These imperfections can act as initiation sites for cracks under cyclic loads or impact stresses.

Post-Processing Techniques

CNC Machined Parts:

• Depending on functional requirements, CNC parts may undergo additional treatments, piemēram:

• • Anodējošs – improves corrosion resistance (common in aluminum)
  • Polishing/lapping – enhances dimensional precision and surface finish
  • Šāviens pīlings – introduces beneficial compressive stresses to improve fatigue life
  • Coating/plating (Piem., niķelis, hroms, or PVD) – enhances wear resistance

Cast Parts:

• Post-processing is often more extensive due to casting’s inherent surface roughness and internal defects.

• • Surface grinding or machining for dimensional accuracy
  • Karsta izostatiska presēšana (Gurns) – used to eliminate porosity and increase density, especially for high-performance alloys (Piem., titanium and Inconel castings)
  • Termiskā apstrāde – improves microstructure uniformity and mechanical properties (Piem., T6 for aluminum castings)

Comparative Table – Surface and Post-Processing Metrics

Aspekts	CNC apstrāde	Metal Casting
Virsmas raupjums (Ra)	0.2–3.2 µm	1.6–25 µm
Subsurface Defects	Rare, unless over-machined	Kopīgs: porainība, ieslēgumi
Noguruma veiktspēja	Augsts (with proper finishing)	Moderate to low (unless treated)
Typical Post-Processing	Anodējošs, pulēšana, pārklājums, shot peening	Apstrāde, Gurns, termiskā apstrāde, slīpēšana
Virsmas integritāte	Lielisks	Mainīgs, often needs improvement

8. CNC VS. Atlaist: A Comprehensive Comparison Table

Kategorija	CNC apstrāde	Liešana
Manufacturing Method	Subtractive: material is removed from solid billets	Additive: molten metal is poured into a mold and solidified
Material Type	Wrought metals (Piem., 7075 alumīnijs, 4140 tērauds, Ti-6Al-4V)	Cast alloys (Piem., A356 aluminum, čuguns, low alloy cast steels)
Mikrostruktūra	Fine-grain, homogeneous, work-hardened	Dendritic, coarse grain, porainība, potential shrinkage defects
Stiepes izturība	Augstāks (Piem., 7075-T6: ~503 MPa, Ti-6Al-4V: ~895 MPa)	Apakšējais (Piem., A356-T6: ~275 MPa, grey cast iron: ~200–400 MPa)
Noguruma pretestība	Superior due to cleaner microstructure, absence of voids	Lower fatigue life due to porosity and surface roughness
Ietekme & Stingrība	Augsts, especially in ductile alloys like forged steel or titanium	Brittle in many cast irons; variable in cast aluminum or steel
Izmēra precizitāte	Very high precision (±0.01 mm), suitable for tight-tolerance components	Moderate accuracy (±0,1–0,3 mm), depends on process (smiltis < mirt < investīciju liešana)
Virsmas apdare	Smooth finish (Ra 0.2–0.8 μm), post-processing optional	Rougher as-cast finish (Ra 3-6 μm), often requires secondary machining
Residual Stress	Possible cutting-induced stress, generally mitigated by finishing operations	Solidification and cooling induce residual stresses, possibly leading to warping or cracks
Anisotropy	Typically isotropic due to uniform rolled/fabricated billets	Often anisotropic due to directional solidification and grain growth
Projektēšanas elastība	Excellent for complex geometries with undercuts, rievas, and fine details	Best for producing complex hollow or net-shape parts without material waste
Volume Suitability	Ideal for prototyping and low-volume production	Economical for high-volume, low-unit-cost manufacturing
Instrumentu izmaksas	Low initial setup; quick iteration	High upfront tooling/mold cost (especially die or investment casting)
Izpildes laiks	Fast setup, rapid turnaround	Longer lead times for mold design, approval, and casting execution
Post-Processing Needs	Minimal; optional polishing, pārklājums, or hardening	Often required: apstrāde, peening, termiskā apstrāde
Izmaksu efektivitāte	Cost-effective in small batches or for precision parts	Economical in large-scale production due to amortized tooling
Lietojumprogrammas piemērotība	Avi kosmosa, medicīnisks, aizsardzība, custom prototypes	Autobūves, construction equipment, sūkņi, vārsti, motora bloki
Strength Verdict	Stronger, more consistent – ideal for structural integrity and fatigue-critical components	Weaker in comparison – suitable where strength demands are moderate or cost is a major driver

9. Secinājums: Ir CNC stiprāks par cast?

Jā, CNC-machined components are generally stronger than cast parts—particularly in terms of tensile strength, noguruma dzīve, and dimensional precision.

This strength advantage arises primarily from the refined microstructure of wrought metals un precision of machining.

Lai arī, the right choice depends on the specific pieteikumu, tilpums, dizaina sarežģītība, and budget.

For safety-critical, load-bearing, or fatigue-sensitive components, CNC is the preferred solution.

But for large-scale, geometrically complex parts with less demanding mechanical loads, casting offers unmatched efficiency.

The most innovative manufacturers are now combining both: near-net casting followed by CNC finishing—a hybrid strategy that merges economy with performance in the era of smart, high-performance manufacturing.

Šis is the perfect choice for your manufacturing needs if you need high-quality CNC machining or casting products.

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